@article {1596,
	title = {Nest cell lining of the solitary bee Hylaeus bisinuatus (Hymenoptera: Colletidae)},
	volume = {48},
	year = {1992},
	month = {1992///},
	pages = {414 - 416},
	abstract = {The nest cell lining of Hylaeus bisinuatus (Hymenoptera: Colletidae) was shown by high-resolution solid-state [C-13]NMR to be composed of lipid polymer and protein. The lipid polymer was shown by reduction and subsequent GC/MS analysis to be comprised of omega-hydroxy fatty acids (C20, C22, C24 and C26) and fatty alcohols (C-16 to C30). The protein portion of the lining had a silk-like amino acid composition},
	keywords = {Apoidea, BEHAVIOR-NESTING, COLLETIDAE, DUFOUR{\textquoteright}S GLAND, NEST LINING, PROTEIN, SYSTEMATICS-CHEMICAL},
	author = {Espelie,K.E. and Cane, J. H. and Himmelsbach,D.S.}
}
@article {1616,
	title = {What governs protein content of pollen: Pollinator preferences, pollen-pistil interactions, or phylogeny?},
	journal = {Ecol.Monog.},
	volume = {70},
	year = {2000},
	month = {2000///},
	pages = {617 - 643},
	abstract = {Pollen ranges from 2.5\% to 61\% protein content. Most pollen proteins are likely to be enzymes that function during pollen tube growth and subsequent fertilization, but the vast range of protein quantity may not reflect only pollen-pistil interactions. Because numerous vertebrate and invertebrate floral visitors consume pollen for protein, protein content may influence floral host choice. Additionally, many floral visitors pollinate their host plants. If protein content influences pollinator visitation, then pollinators are hypothesized to select for increased protein content of host plants. We analyzed or gleaned from the literature crude pollen protein concentrations of 377 plant species from 93 plant families. Using this database, we compared pollen protein concentration with (1) pollination mode, (2) pollen collection by bees, and (3) distance from stigma to ovule, after accounting for phylogeny through paired phylogenetic comparisons and a nested ANOVA including taxonomic rank. We found that pollen protein concentrations were highly conserved within plant genera, families, and divisions. We found that bees did not collect pollen that was unusually rich in protein, whether they pollinated or merely robbed their host plant. Plant species with vibratile pollination systems, which require visitation by pollen-collecting bees in order to transfer pollen, tended to have very protein-rich pollen, but it was not clear whether this was due to plant enhancement of pollinator rewards or to the possession of very small pollen grains. We found that zoophilous species were not statistically richer in pollen protein than anemophilous species after accounting for phylogeny, although the three most species-rich anemophilous clades surveyed were generally poor in protein. Plant genera hosting specialist pollen-collecting bees did not have particularly protein-rich pollen. Both mass of protein per pollen grain and pollen grain volume were correlated with stigma-ovule distance. We suggest that the need for growing pollen tubes probably plays a more important role in determining pollen protein content than rewarding pollinators},
	keywords = {ANEMOPHILY, BUZZ POLLINATION, COEVOLUTION, EVOLUTION, PHYLOGENY, POLLEN, POLLEN TUBE, POLLEN-CHEMISTRY, POLLINATION, POLLINATOR, PROTEIN, STIGMA, VARIATION},
	author = {Roulston,T.H. and Cane, J. H. and Buchmann,S.L.}
}
@article {1619,
	title = {The effect of pollen protein concentration on body size in the sweat bee Lasioglossum zephyrum (Hymenoptera : Apiformes)},
	volume = {16},
	year = {2002},
	month = {2002///},
	pages = {49 - 65},
	abstract = {Adult bees and wasps provide all the food their offspring require to grow from egg to adult. For a given diet. offspring body size generally increases with an increase in the amount of food consumed as a larva, but the extent to which body size is influenced by the type of food consumed is poorly known. Pollen ranges from 2-60\% protein among plant species, and bees are extremely efficient at assimilating nitrogen; therefore, it seems likely that either parent bees adjust the size of larval provisions to compensate for differences in pollen protein concentration or bee offspring attain different body size depending on the pollen type(s) consumed as a larva, We presented the generalist sweat bee Lasioglossum zephyrum with pollen diets that differed in protein content and monitored offspring body size during two experiments. In a protein supplementation experiment, diets ranged from 20-66\% protein and consisted of Typha pollen amended with soy protein. On a pollen/soy diet, offspring body size increased 25\% with a shift from 20-37\% protein, but did not increase further at greater protein concentrations, In a multiple pollen experiment, pollen diets ranged from 20-39\% protein and consisted of eight pollens that differed naturally in protein concentration. The largest offspring arose from the most protein-rich pollens, whereas much smaller bees developed on protein-poor pollens, Provision size only predicted offspring size when pollen type, and therefore protein quantity, was considered. Adult foragers did not adjust provision size to compensate for pollen protein, Therefore, offspring body size appears to result from a combination of controlled (provision size) and uncontrolled (pollen quality) factors that arise out of bee foraging decisions},
	keywords = {Apoidea, BEE SIZE, BEHAVIOR-FORAGING, BEHAVIOR-NESTING, Halictidae, LARVAL PROVISIONS, NUTRITION, POLLEN, PROTEIN, SIZE},
	author = {Roulston,T.H. and Cane, J. H.}
}
@article {1617,
	title = {Pollen nutritional content and digestibility for animals},
	journal = {Plant Systematics and Evolution},
	volume = {222},
	year = {2000},
	month = {2000///},
	pages = {187 - 209},
	abstract = {This paper reviews the literature concerning digestion and nutrient content of pollen. Four topics are addressed in detail: 1) The mechanism of pollen digestion by animals; 2) The efficiency of mechanical and digestive removal of pollen content by various animals: 3) Range and taxonomic distribution of pollen nutrients, and 4) Adaptive hypotheses proposed to associate pollen chemistry with pollinator reward. Studies on the mechanism(s) of pollen digestion remain inconclusive, but suggest that differences in digestibility among pollen types may reflect differences in pollen wall porosity, thickness, and composition. Although hummingbirds reportedly digest pollen very poorly, most animals studied, including those that do not regularly consume pollen, can digest 50-100\% of ingested grains. Overlooked and recent research of pollen protein content shows that pollen grains may contain over 60\% protein, double the amount cited in some studies of pollen-feeding animals. Adaptive hypotheses that associate pollen starch and pollen caloric content with pollinator reward remain unsubstantiated when critically viewed through the lens of phylogeny},
	keywords = {Apoidea, BATS, BEHAVIOR-FORAGING, BIRD, DIGESTION, HUMMINGBIRD, PHYLOGENY, POLLEN, POLLEN- ANALYSIS, POLLEN-CHEMISTRY, POLLINATOR, PROTEIN, SUGAR},
	author = {Roulston,T.H. and Cane, J. H.}
}
@article {1609,
	title = {Biological impediments to measures of competition among introduced honey bees and desert bees (Hymenoptera: Apiformes)},
	journal = {Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society},
	volume = {76},
	year = {2003},
	month = {2003///},
	pages = {306 - 319},
	abstract = {Foraging behaviors, host plant breadth, and agilities of social and solitary bee species differ dramatically. We illustrate how these phenomena can obscure the effects of floral resource competition from our studies on a species-rich, native bee fauna that visit the flowers of creosote bush [Larrea tridentata Coville (Zygophyllaceae)], a widespread dominant perennial plant species in the warm deserts of North America. The potential for competition among the solitary bees that visit creosote bush and honey bees was investigated by two methods: one that is widely used asks if solitary bee abundance and species diversity is less at sites with greater honey bee abundance; and a second. more novel approach that asks if pollen availability is limiting at sites with high bee biomass. We found no relationship among number of honey bees at sited and species richness and abundance of all native bees combined or of Pollen specialist species considered alone. Protein represented in the pollen of the primary host plant greatly exceeded the biomass of bees present at a site. We suggest bee populations are rarely pollen limited in this system or that competition, when it occurs, is highly episodic. Future studies of bee competition will need to assess long-term Population variation among solitary and introduced bees in habitats where floral resources can be measured for multiple flowering plant species, and where bee colony/nest dynamics can be documented, Studies of bee faunas in temperate areas are needed. This paper demonstrates some of the possible pitfalls for studies of competition among highly eusocial and solitary bees, We conclude that basic data (in bee biology and population dynamics are needed before these questions can be satisfactorily answered and, at present, little hard data are available to evaluate the competing hypotheses},
	keywords = {APIS, Apoidea, BEHAVIOR, COMPETITION, DIVERSITY, FLOWERING, GUILD, HABITAT, LARREA, METHODS, POLLEN, PROTEIN, RESOURCE LIMITATION, VARIATION},
	author = {Minckley,R.L. and Cane, J. H. and Kervin,L. and Yanega,D.}
}
